Automatically choosing data samples for annotation

ABSTRACT

Among other things, we describe techniques for automatically selecting data samples for annotation. The techniques use bounding box prediction based on a bounding box score distribution, spatial probability density determined from bounding box sizes and positions and an ensemble score variance determined from outputs of multiple machine learning models to select data samples for annotation. In an embodiment, temporal inconsistency cues are used to select data samples for annotation. In an embodiment, digital map constraints or other map-based data are used to exclude data samples from annotation. In an exemplary application, the annotated data samples are used to train a machine learning model that outputs perception data for an autonomous vehicle application.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/796,064, filed Jan. 23, 2019, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This description relates to machine learning, and more particularly to using active learning techniques to automatically select data samples for annotation.

BACKGROUND

Convolutional neural networks (CNN) have been successfully used for perception tasks in autonomous driving applications. The CNN structure includes layers that learn by training data. Learning to classify image and video samples requires that a human annotator label each data sample with a label. Having to annotate thousands of data samples is tedious and redundant.

SUMMARY

An active learning system and method is disclosed for automatically selecting data samples (e.g., images, point clouds) from a data sample pool for a human to annotate. The system and method use bounding box prediction based on a bounding box score probability distribution, spatial probability density determined from bounding box sizes and positions in the data samples and ensemble score variances determined from outputs of multiple machine learning models to select data samples for annotation. In an embodiment, temporal inconsistency cues are used to select for annotation data samples (e.g., successive video frames) that have temporal noise (e.g., flicker). In an embodiment, digital maps are used to exclude from annotation data samples that violate map constraints (hard and/or statistical constraints). In an exemplary application, the annotated data samples are used to train a machine learning model (e.g., a CNN) that outputs perception data (e.g., labeled objects and scenes) for an autonomous vehicle application. In an embodiment, the active learning system is implemented in a planning module of an autonomous vehicle.

Advantages of the disclosed active learning system include automatically selecting a subset of data from a large sample pool for human annotation, thus reducing the amount of time and cost in manually preparing training data sets for machine learning models for autonomous vehicle applications.

In an embodiment, a method comprises: obtaining, using a computer system, a set of data samples, each data sample including one or more bounding boxes, each bounding box containing a potential object or scene in an environment, each bounding box having a label and bounding box score indicating a confidence in the label being correct; and selecting, using the computer system, a subset of data samples for annotation based on a bounding box prediction confidence determined using a probability distribution of bounding box scores, and an ensemble score variance based on differences in ensemble scores computed from sets of predictions output by multiple machine learning models.

In an embodiment, the method further comprises: selecting, using the computer system, the subset of data samples for annotation based on the bounding box prediction confidence, a spatial probability density of the bounding boxes parameterized by bounding box size and position and the ensemble score variance.

In an embodiment, the bounding box prediction further comprises: for each label, generating a probability distribution of bounding box scores; and determining, based on the distribution, a likelihood that a particular bounding box is incorrectly labeled; and selecting or excluding the particular bounding box for annotation based on the likelihood.

In an embodiment, the distribution is approximated by a histogram having bins representing ranges of bounding box scores, and each bin is associated with a likelihood.

In an embodiment, for each bin the likelihood is calculated from a ratio of a number of incorrectly labeled bounding boxes assigned to the bin and a number of labeled bounding boxes assigned to the bin.

In an embodiment, the method further comprises: for each label, sensor and scale, determining the spatial probability density using a Gaussian Mixture Model (GMM) over a set of bounding boxes for the label, sensor and scale, where the GMM is parameterized by bounding box size and position.

In an embodiment, the spatial probability density for the label is determined by dividing the spatial densities for the label by a largest density value among all spatial density values for the label.

In an embodiment, the method further comprises: processing the data samples through a plurality of different machine learning models to generate predicted labeled bounding boxes; computing an ensemble score for each pairwise comparison of the predicted labeled bounding boxes, where each predicted labeled bounding box is a ground truth for comparison with the other predicted labeled bounding boxes; and computing an ensemble score variance based on the ensemble scores.

In an embodiment, the plurality of different machine learning models includes a plurality of different neural networks tuned by training data samples provided by different types of sensors.

In an embodiment, the different types of sensors include LiDAR, RADAR and a camera.

In an embodiment, the plurality of different neural networks are trained on different random orders of the training data samples.

In an embodiment, the method further comprises: detecting, by the computer system, temporal inconsistency between successive data samples; and in accordance with temporal inconsistency being detected, selecting the successive data samples for annotation.

In an embodiment, the method further comprises: using, by the computer system, map constraints to detect an error associated with a bounding box; and in accordance with the error being detected, excluding the bounding box from annotation.

These and other aspects, features, and implementations can be expressed as methods, apparatus, systems, components, program products, means or steps for performing a function, and in other ways.

These and other aspects, features, and implementations will become apparent from the following descriptions, including the claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows an example of an autonomous vehicle having autonomous capability.

FIG. 2 illustrates an example “cloud” computing environment.

FIG. 3 illustrates a computer system.

FIG. 4 shows an example architecture for an autonomous vehicle.

FIG. 5 shows an example of inputs and outputs that may be used by a perception module.

FIG. 6 shows an example of a LiDAR system.

FIG. 7 shows the LiDAR system in operation.

FIG. 8 shows the operation of the LiDAR system in additional detail.

FIG. 9 shows a block diagram of the relationships between inputs and outputs of a planning module.

FIG. 10 shows a directed graph used in path planning.

FIG. 11 shows a block diagram of the inputs and outputs of a control module.

FIG. 12 shows a block diagram of the inputs, outputs, and components of a controller.

FIG. 13 shows a scene output by a perception module that includes bounding boxes and corresponding labels and bounding box scores.

FIG. 14 shows a block diagram of an active learning system for automatically selecting data samples for annotation.

FIG. 15 shows a stacked histogram of bounding box scores.

FIG. 16 shows a plot of spatial GMM density for a particular label and a particular sensor.

FIG. 17 shows a block diagram of an ensemble system.

FIG. 18 shows a flow diagram of an active learning process for automatically selecting samples for annotation.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

In the following description, for the purposes of explanation, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention. It will be apparent, however, that the present invention may be practiced without these specific details. In other instances, well-known structures and devices are shown in block diagram form in order to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the present invention.

In the drawings, specific arrangements or orderings of schematic elements, such as those representing devices, modules, instruction blocks and data elements, are shown for ease of description. However, it should be understood by those skilled in the art that the specific ordering or arrangement of the schematic elements in the drawings is not meant to imply that a particular order or sequence of processing, or separation of processes, is required. Further, the inclusion of a schematic element in a drawing is not meant to imply that such element is required in all embodiments or that the features represented by such element may not be included in or combined with other elements in some embodiments.

Further, in the drawings, where connecting elements, such as solid or dashed lines or arrows, are used to illustrate a connection, relationship, or association between or among two or more other schematic elements, the absence of any such connecting elements is not meant to imply that no connection, relationship, or association can exist. In other words, some connections, relationships, or associations between elements are not shown in the drawings so as not to obscure the disclosure. In addition, for ease of illustration, a single connecting element is used to represent multiple connections, relationships or associations between elements. For example, where a connecting element represents a communication of signals, data, or instructions, it should be understood by those skilled in the art that such element represents one or multiple signal paths (e.g., a bus), as may be needed, to affect the communication.

Reference will now be made in detail to embodiments, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanying drawings. In the following detailed description, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the various described embodiments. However, it will be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art that the various described embodiments may be practiced without these specific details. In other instances, well-known methods, procedures, components, circuits, and networks have not been described in detail so as not to unnecessarily obscure aspects of the embodiments.

Several features are described hereafter that can each be used independently of one another or with any combination of other features. However, any individual feature may not address any of the problems discussed above or might only address one of the problems discussed above. Some of the problems discussed above might not be fully addressed by any of the features described herein. Although headings are provided, information related to a particular heading, but not found in the section having that heading, may also be found elsewhere in this description. Embodiments are described herein according to the following outline:

1. General Overview

2. System Overview

3. Autonomous Vehicle Architecture

4. Autonomous Vehicle Inputs

5. Autonomous Vehicle Planning

6. Autonomous Vehicle Control

7. Active Learning System

General Overview

Among other things, we describe techniques for automatically selecting data samples (e.g., images, point clouds) for a human to annotate. The techniques use bounding box predictions, spatial probability densities determined from bounding box sizes and positions and an ensemble score variance determined from outputs of multiple machine learning models, to select data samples for annotation. In an embodiment, temporal inconsistency cues are used to select data samples for annotation. In an embodiment, digital map constraints or other map-based data are used to exclude data samples from annotation. In an exemplary application, the annotated data samples are used to train a machine learning model (e.g., a CNN) that outputs perception data (e.g., labeled objects and scenes) for an autonomous vehicle application. In an embodiment, the active learning system can be implemented by a planning module of an autonomous vehicle.

System Overview

FIG. 1 shows an example of an autonomous vehicle 100 having autonomous capability.

As used herein, the term “autonomous capability” refers to a function, feature, or facility that enables a vehicle to be partially or fully operated without real-time human intervention, including without limitation fully autonomous vehicles, highly autonomous vehicles, and conditionally autonomous vehicles.

As used herein, an autonomous vehicle (AV) is a vehicle that possesses autonomous capability.

As used herein, “vehicle” includes means of transportation of goods or people. For example, cars, buses, trains, airplanes, drones, trucks, boats, ships, submersibles, dirigibles, etc. A driverless car is an example of a vehicle.

As used herein, “trajectory” refers to a path or route to navigate an AV from a first spatiotemporal location to second spatiotemporal location. In an embodiment, the first spatiotemporal location is referred to as the initial or starting location and the second spatiotemporal location is referred to as the destination, final location, goal, goal position, or goal location. In some examples, a trajectory is made up of one or more segments (e.g., sections of road) and each segment is made up of one or more blocks (e.g., portions of a lane or intersection). In an embodiment, the spatiotemporal locations correspond to real world locations. For example, the spatiotemporal locations are pick up or drop-off locations to pick up or drop-off persons or goods.

As used herein, “sensor(s)” includes one or more hardware components that detect information about the environment surrounding the sensor. Some of the hardware components can include sensing components (e.g., image sensors, biometric sensors), transmitting and/or receiving components (e.g., laser or radio frequency wave transmitters and receivers), electronic components such as analog-to-digital converters, a data storage device (such as a RAM and/or a nonvolatile storage), software or firmware components and data processing components such as an ASIC (application-specific integrated circuit), a microprocessor and/or a microcontroller.

As used herein, a “scene description” is a data structure (e.g., list) or data stream that includes one or more classified or labeled objects detected by one or more sensors on the AV vehicle or provided by a source external to the AV.

As used herein, a “road” is a physical area that can be traversed by a vehicle, and may correspond to a named thoroughfare (e.g., city street, interstate freeway, etc.) or may correspond to an unnamed thoroughfare (e.g., a driveway in a house or office building, a section of a parking lot, a section of a vacant lot, a dirt path in a rural area, etc.). Because some vehicles (e.g., 4-wheel-drive pickup trucks, sport utility vehicles, etc.) are capable of traversing a variety of physical areas not specifically adapted for vehicle travel, a “road” may be a physical area not formally defined as a thoroughfare by any municipality or other governmental or administrative body.

As used herein, a “lane” is a portion of a road that can be traversed by a vehicle. A lane is sometimes identified based on lane markings. For example, a lane may correspond to most or all of the space between lane markings, or may correspond to only some (e.g., less than 50%) of the space between lane markings. For example, a road having lane markings spaced far apart might accommodate two or more vehicles between the markings, such that one vehicle can pass the other without traversing the lane markings, and thus could be interpreted as having a lane narrower than the space between the lane markings, or having two lanes between the lane markings. A lane could also be interpreted in the absence of lane markings. For example, a lane may be defined based on physical features of an environment, e.g., rocks and trees along a thoroughfare in a rural area or, e.g., natural obstructions to be avoided in an undeveloped area. A lane could also be interpreted independent of lane markings or physical features. For example, a lane could be interpreted based on an arbitrary path free of obstructions in an area that otherwise lacks features that would be interpreted as lane boundaries. In an example scenario, an AV could interpret a lane through an obstruction-free portion of a field or empty lot. In another example scenario, an AV could interpret a lane through a wide (e.g., wide enough for two or more lanes) road that does not have lane markings. In this scenario, the AV could communicate information about the lane to other AVs so that the other AVs can use the same lane information to coordinate path planning among themselves.

The term “over-the-air (OTA) client” includes any AV, or any electronic device (e.g., computer, controller, IoT device, electronic control unit (ECU)) that is embedded in, coupled to, or in communication with an AV.

The term “over-the-air (OTA) update” means any update, change, deletion or addition to software, firmware, data or configuration settings, or any combination thereof, that is delivered to an OTA client using proprietary and/or standardized wireless communications technology, including but not limited to: cellular mobile communications (e.g., 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G), radio wireless area networks (e.g., WiFi) and/or satellite Internet.

The term “edge node” means one or more edge devices coupled to a network that provide a portal for communication with AVs and can communicate with other edge nodes and a cloud based computing platform, for scheduling and delivering OTA updates to OTA clients.

The term “edge device” means a device that implements an edge node and provides a physical wireless access point (AP) into enterprise or service provider (e.g., Verizon□, AT&T□) core networks. Examples of edge devices include but are not limited to: computers, controllers, transmitters, routers, routing switches, integrated access devices (IADs), multiplexers, metropolitan area network (MAN) and wide area network (WAN) access devices.

“One or more” includes a function being performed by one element, a function being performed by more than one element, e.g., in a distributed fashion, several functions being performed by one element, several functions being performed by several elements, or any combination of the above.

It will also be understood that, although the terms first, second, etc. are, in some instances, used herein to describe various elements, these elements should not be limited by these terms. These terms are only used to distinguish one element from another. For example, a first contact could be termed a second contact, and, similarly, a second contact could be termed a first contact, without departing from the scope of the various described embodiments. The first contact and the second contact are both contacts, but they are not the same contact.

The terminology used in the description of the various described embodiments herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting. As used in the description of the various described embodiments and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an” and “the” are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. It will also be understood that the term “and/or” as used herein refers to and encompasses any and all possible combinations of one or more of the associated listed items. It will be further understood that the terms “includes,” “including,” “comprises,” and/or “comprising,” when used in this description, specify the presence of stated features, integers, steps, operations, elements, and/or components, but do not preclude the presence or addition of one or more other features, integers, steps, operations, elements, components, and/or groups thereof.

As used herein, the term “if” is, optionally, construed to mean “when” or “upon” or “in response to determining” or “in response to detecting,” depending on the context. Similarly, the phrase “if it is determined” or “if [a stated condition or event] is detected” is, optionally, construed to mean “upon determining” or “in response to determining” or “upon detecting [the stated condition or event]” or “in response to detecting [the stated condition or event],” depending on the context.

As used herein, an AV system refers to the AV along with the array of hardware, software, stored data, and data generated in real-time that supports the operation of the AV. In an embodiment, the AV system is incorporated within the AV. In an embodiment, the AV system is spread across several locations. For example, some of the software of the AV system is implemented on a cloud computing environment similar to cloud computing environment 300 described below with respect to FIG. 3.

In general, this document describes technologies applicable to any vehicles that have one or more autonomous capabilities including fully autonomous vehicles, highly autonomous vehicles, and conditionally autonomous vehicles, such as so-called Level 5, Level 4 and Level 3 vehicles, respectively (see SAE International's standard J3016: Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to On-Road Motor Vehicle Automated Driving Systems, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety, for more details on the classification of levels of autonomy in vehicles). The technologies described in this document are also applicable to partially autonomous vehicles and driver assisted vehicles, such as so-called Level 2 and Level 1 vehicles (see SAE International's standard J3016: Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to On-Road Motor Vehicle Automated Driving Systems). In an embodiment, one or more of the Level 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 vehicle systems may automate certain vehicle operations (e.g., steering, braking, and using maps) under certain operating conditions based on processing of sensor inputs. The technologies described in this document can benefit vehicles in any levels, ranging from fully autonomous vehicles to human-operated vehicles.

Autonomous vehicles have advantages over vehicles that require a human driver. One advantage is safety. For example, in 2016, the United States experienced 6 million automobile accidents, 2.4 million injuries, 40,000 fatalities, and 13 million vehicles in crashes, estimated at a societal cost of $910+ billion. U.S. traffic fatalities per 100 million miles traveled have been reduced from about six to about one from 1965 to 2015, in part due to additional safety measures deployed in vehicles. For example, an additional half second of warning that a crash is about to occur is believed to mitigate 60% of front-to-rear crashes. However, passive safety features (e.g., seat belts, airbags) have likely reached their limit in improving this number. Thus, active safety measures, such as automated control of a vehicle, are the likely next step in improving these statistics. Because human drivers are believed to be responsible for a critical pre-crash event in 95% of crashes, automated driving systems are likely to achieve better safety outcomes, e.g., by reliably recognizing and avoiding critical situations better than humans; making better decisions, obeying traffic laws, and predicting future events better than humans; and reliably controlling a vehicle better than a human.

Referring to FIG. 1, an AV system 120 operates the AV 100 along a trajectory 198 through an environment 190 to a destination 199 (sometimes referred to as a final location) while avoiding objects (e.g., natural obstructions 191, vehicles 193, pedestrians 192, cyclists, and other obstacles) and obeying rules of the road (e.g., rules of operation or driving preferences).

In an embodiment, the AV system 120 includes devices 101 that are instrumented to receive and act on operational commands from the computer processors 146. In an embodiment, computing processors 146 are similar to the processor 304 described below in reference to FIG. 3. Examples of devices 101 include a steering control 102, brakes 103, gears, accelerator pedal or other acceleration control mechanisms, windshield wipers, side-door locks, window controls, and turn-indicators.

In an embodiment, the AV system 120 includes sensors 121 for measuring or inferring properties of state or condition of the AV 100, such as the AV's position, linear and angular velocity and acceleration, and heading (e.g., an orientation of the leading end of AV 100). Example of sensors 121 are GPS, inertial measurement units (IMU) that measure both vehicle linear accelerations and angular rates, wheel speed sensors for measuring or estimating wheel slip ratios, wheel brake pressure or braking torque sensors, engine torque or wheel torque sensors, and steering angle and angular rate sensors.

In an embodiment, the sensors 121 also include sensors for sensing or measuring properties of the AV's environment. For example, monocular or stereo video cameras 122 in the visible light, infrared or thermal (or both) spectra, LiDAR 123, RADAR, ultrasonic sensors, time-of-flight (TOF) depth sensors, speed sensors, temperature sensors, humidity sensors, and precipitation sensors.

In an embodiment, the AV system 120 includes a data storage unit 142 and memory 144 for storing machine instructions associated with computer processors 146 or data collected by sensors 121. In an embodiment, the data storage unit 142 is similar to the ROM 308 or storage device 310 described below in relation to FIG. 3. In an embodiment, memory 144 is similar to the main memory 306 described below. In an embodiment, the data storage unit 142 and memory 144 store historical, real-time, and/or predictive information about the environment 190. In an embodiment, the stored information includes maps, driving performance, traffic congestion updates or weather conditions. In an embodiment, data relating to the environment 190 is transmitted to the AV 100 via a communications channel from a remotely located database 134.

In an embodiment, the AV system 120 includes communications devices 140 for communicating measured or inferred properties of other vehicles' states and conditions, such as positions, linear and angular velocities, linear and angular accelerations, and linear and angular headings to the AV 100. These devices include Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) communication devices and devices for wireless communications over point-to-point or ad hoc networks or both. In an embodiment, the communications devices 140 communicate across the electromagnetic spectrum (including radio and optical communications) or other media (e.g., air and acoustic media). A combination of Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) communication (and, in some embodiments, one or more other types of communication) is sometimes referred to as Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) communication. V2X communication typically conforms to one or more communications standards for communication with, between, and among autonomous vehicles.

In an embodiment, the communication devices 140 include communication interfaces. For example, wired, wireless, WiMAX, WiFi, Bluetooth, satellite, cellular, optical, near field, infrared, or radio interfaces. The communication interfaces transmit data from a remotely located database 134 to AV system 120. In an embodiment, the remotely located database 134 is embedded in a cloud computing environment 200 as described in FIG. 2. The communication interfaces 140 transmit data collected from sensors 121 or other data related to the operation of AV 100 to the remotely located database 134. In an embodiment, communication interfaces 140 transmit information that relates to teleoperations to the AV 100. In some embodiments, the AV 100 communicates with other remote (e.g., “cloud”) servers 136.

In an embodiment, the remotely located database 134 also stores and transmits digital data (e.g., storing data such as road and street locations). Such data is stored on the memory 144 on the AV 100, or transmitted to the AV 100 via a communications channel from the remotely located database 134.

In an embodiment, the remotely located database 134 stores and transmits historical information about driving properties (e.g., speed and acceleration profiles) of vehicles that have previously traveled along trajectory 198 at similar times of day. In one implementation, such data may be stored on the memory 144 on the AV 100, or transmitted to the AV 100 via a communications channel from the remotely located database 134.

Computing devices 146 located on the AV 100 algorithmically generate control actions based on both real-time sensor data and prior information, allowing the AV system 120 to execute its autonomous driving capabilities.

In an embodiment, the AV system 120 includes computer peripherals 132 coupled to computing devices 146 for providing information and alerts to, and receiving input from, a user (e.g., an occupant or a remote user) of the AV 100. In an embodiment, peripherals 132 are similar to the display 312, input device 314, and cursor controller 316 discussed below in reference to FIG. 3. The coupling is wireless or wired. Any two or more of the interface devices may be integrated into a single device.

FIG. 2 illustrates an example “cloud” computing environment. Cloud computing is a model of service delivery for enabling convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g. networks, network bandwidth, servers, processing, memory, storage, applications, virtual machines, and services). In typical cloud computing systems, one or more large cloud data centers house the machines used to deliver the services provided by the cloud. Referring now to FIG. 2, the cloud computing environment 200 includes cloud data centers 204 a, 204 b, and 204 c that are interconnected through the cloud 202. Data centers 204 a, 204 b, and 204 c provide cloud computing services to computer systems 206 a, 206 b, 206 c, 206 d, 206 e, and 206 f connected to cloud 202.

The cloud computing environment 200 includes one or more cloud data centers. In general, a cloud data center, for example the cloud data center 204 a shown in FIG. 2, refers to the physical arrangement of servers that make up a cloud, for example the cloud 202 shown in FIG. 2, or a particular portion of a cloud. For example, servers are physically arranged in the cloud datacenter into rooms, groups, rows, and racks. A cloud datacenter has one or more zones, which include one or more rooms of servers. Each room has one or more rows of servers, and each row includes one or more racks. Each rack includes one or more individual server nodes. In some implementation, servers in zones, rooms, racks, and/or rows are arranged into groups based on physical infrastructure requirements of the datacenter facility, which include power, energy, thermal, heat, and/or other requirements. In an embodiment, the server nodes are similar to the computer system described in FIG. 3. The data center 204 a has many computing systems distributed through many racks.

The cloud 202 includes cloud data centers 204 a, 204 b, and 204 c along with the network and networking resources (for example, networking equipment, nodes, routers, switches, and networking cables) that interconnect the cloud data centers 204 a, 204 b, and 204 c and help facilitate the computing systems' 206 a-f access to cloud computing services. In an embodiment, the network represents any combination of one or more local networks, wide area networks, or internetworks coupled using wired or wireless links deployed using terrestrial or satellite connections. Data exchanged over the network, is transferred using any number of network layer protocols, such as Internet Protocol (IP), Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS), Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), Frame Relay, etc. Furthermore, in embodiments where the network represents a combination of multiple sub-networks, different network layer protocols are used at each of the underlying sub-networks. In some embodiments, the network represents one or more interconnected internetworks, such as the public Internet.

The computing systems 206 a-f or cloud computing services consumers are connected to the cloud 202 through network links and network adapters. In an embodiment, the computing systems 206 a-f are implemented as various computing devices, for example servers, desktops, laptops, tablet, smartphones, Internet of Things (IoT) devices, autonomous vehicles (including, cars, drones, shuttles, trains, buses, etc.) and consumer electronics. In an embodiment, the computing systems 206 a-f are implemented in or as a part of other systems.

FIG. 3 illustrates a computer system 300. In an implementation, the computer system 300 is a special purpose computing device. The special-purpose computing device is hard-wired to perform the techniques or includes digital electronic devices such as one or more application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) or field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) that are persistently programmed to perform the techniques, or may include one or more general purpose hardware processors programmed to perform the techniques pursuant to program instructions in firmware, memory, other storage, or a combination. Such special-purpose computing devices may also combine custom hard-wired logic, ASICs, or FPGAs with custom programming to accomplish the techniques. In various embodiments, the special-purpose computing devices are desktop computer systems, portable computer systems, handheld devices, network devices or any other device that incorporates hard-wired and/or program logic to implement the techniques.

In an embodiment, the computer system 300 includes a bus 302 or other communication mechanism for communicating information, and a hardware processor 304 coupled with a bus 302 for processing information. The hardware processor 304 is, for example, a general-purpose microprocessor. The computer system 300 also includes a main memory 306, such as a random-access memory (RAM) or other dynamic storage device, coupled to the bus 302 for storing information and instructions to be executed by processor 304. In one implementation, the main memory 306 is used for storing temporary variables or other intermediate information during execution of instructions to be executed by the processor 304. Such instructions, when stored in non-transitory storage media accessible to the processor 304, render the computer system 300 into a special-purpose machine that is customized to perform the operations specified in the instructions.

In an embodiment, the computer system 300 further includes a read only memory (ROM) 308 or other static storage device coupled to the bus 302 for storing static information and instructions for the processor 304. A storage device 310, such as a magnetic disk, optical disk, solid-state drive, or three-dimensional cross point memory is provided and coupled to the bus 302 for storing information and instructions.

In an embodiment, the computer system 300 is coupled via the bus 302 to a display 312, such as a cathode ray tube (CRT), a liquid crystal display (LCD), plasma display, light emitting diode (LED) display, or an organic light emitting diode (OLED) display for displaying information to a computer user. An input device 314, including alphanumeric and other keys, is coupled to bus 302 for communicating information and command selections to the processor 304. Another type of user input device is a cursor controller 316, such as a mouse, a trackball, a touch-enabled display, or cursor direction keys for communicating direction information and command selections to the processor 304 and for controlling cursor movement on the display 312. This input device typically has two degrees of freedom in two axes, a first axis (e.g., x-axis) and a second axis (e.g., y-axis), that allows the device to specify positions in a plane.

According to one embodiment, the techniques herein are performed by the computer system 300 in response to the processor 304 executing one or more sequences of one or more instructions contained in the main memory 306. Such instructions are read into the main memory 306 from another storage medium, such as the storage device 310. Execution of the sequences of instructions contained in the main memory 306 causes the processor 304 to perform the process steps described herein. In alternative embodiments, hard-wired circuitry is used in place of or in combination with software instructions.

The term “storage media” as used herein refers to any non-transitory media that store data and/or instructions that cause a machine to operate in a specific fashion. Such storage media includes non-volatile media and/or volatile media. Non-volatile media includes, for example, optical disks, magnetic disks, solid-state drives, or three-dimensional cross point memory, such as the storage device 310. Volatile media includes dynamic memory, such as the main memory 306. Common forms of storage media include, for example, a floppy disk, a flexible disk, hard disk, solid-state drive, magnetic tape, or any other magnetic data storage medium, a CD-ROM, any other optical data storage medium, any physical medium with patterns of holes, a RAM, a PROM, and EPROM, a FLASH-EPROM, NV-RAM, or any other memory chip or cartridge.

Storage media is distinct from but may be used in conjunction with transmission media. Transmission media participates in transferring information between storage media. For example, transmission media includes coaxial cables, copper wire and fiber optics, including the wires that comprise the bus 302. Transmission media can also take the form of acoustic or light waves, such as those generated during radio-wave and infrared data communications.

In an embodiment, various forms of media are involved in carrying one or more sequences of one or more instructions to the processor 304 for execution. For example, the instructions are initially carried on a magnetic disk or solid-state drive of a remote computer. The remote computer loads the instructions into its dynamic memory and send the instructions over a telephone line using a modem. A modem local to the computer system 300 receives the data on the telephone line and use an infrared transmitter to convert the data to an infrared signal. An infrared detector receives the data carried in the infrared signal and appropriate circuitry places the data on the bus 302. The bus 302 carries the data to the main memory 306, from which processor 304 retrieves and executes the instructions. The instructions received by the main memory 306 may optionally be stored on the storage device 310 either before or after execution by processor 304.

The computer system 300 also includes a communication interface 318 coupled to the bus 302. The communication interface 318 provides a two-way data communication coupling to a network link 320 that is connected to a local network 322. For example, the communication interface 318 is an integrated service digital network (ISDN) card, cable modem, satellite modem, or a modem to provide a data communication connection to a corresponding type of telephone line. As another example, the communication interface 318 is a local area network (LAN) card to provide a data communication connection to a compatible LAN. In some implementations, wireless links are also implemented. In any such implementation, the communication interface 318 sends and receives electrical, electromagnetic, or optical signals that carry digital data streams representing various types of information.

The network link 320 typically provides data communication through one or more networks to other data devices. For example, the network link 320 provides a connection through the local network 322 to a host computer 324 or to a cloud data center or equipment operated by an Internet Service Provider (ISP) 326. The ISP 326 in turn provides data communication services through the world-wide packet data communication network now commonly referred to as the “Internet” 328. The local network 322 and Internet 328 both use electrical, electromagnetic or optical signals that carry digital data streams. The signals through the various networks and the signals on the network link 320 and through the communication interface 318, which carry the digital data to and from the computer system 300, are example forms of transmission media. In an embodiment, the network 320 contains the cloud 202 or a part of the cloud 202 described above.

The computer system 300 sends messages and receives data, including program code, through the network(s), the network link 320, and the communication interface 318. In an embodiment, the computer system 300 receives code for processing. The received code is executed by the processor 304 as it is received, and/or stored in storage device 310, or other non-volatile storage for later execution.

Autonomous Vehicle Architecture

FIG. 4 shows an example architecture 400 for an autonomous vehicle (e.g., the AV 100 shown in FIG. 1). The architecture 400 includes a perception module 402 (sometimes referred to as a perception circuit), a planning module 404 (sometimes referred to as a planning circuit), a control module 406 (sometimes referred to as a control circuit), a localization module 408 (sometimes referred to as a localization circuit), and a database module 410 (sometimes referred to as a database circuit). Each module plays a role in the operation of the AV 100. Together, the modules 402, 404, 406, 408, and 410 may be part of the AV system 120 shown in FIG. 1. In some embodiments, any of the modules 402, 404, 406, 408, and 410 is a combination of computer software (e.g., executable code stored on a computer-readable medium) and computer hardware (e.g., one or more microprocessors, microcontrollers, application-specific integrated circuits [ASICs]), hardware memory devices, other types of integrated circuits, other types of computer hardware, or a combination of any or all of these things). Each of the modules 402, 404, 406, 408, and 410 is sometimes referred to as a processing circuit (e.g., computer hardware, computer software, or a combination of the two). A combination of any or all of the modules 402, 404, 406, 408, and 410 is also an example of a processing circuit.

In use, the planning module 404 receives data representing a destination 412 and determines data representing a trajectory 414 (sometimes referred to as a route) that can be traveled by the AV 100 to reach (e.g., arrive at) the destination 412. In order for the planning module 404 to determine the data representing the trajectory 414, the planning module 404 receives data from the perception module 402, the localization module 408, and the database module 410.

The perception module 402 identifies nearby physical objects using one or more sensors 121, e.g., as also shown in FIG. 1. The objects are classified (e.g., grouped into types such as pedestrian, bicycle, automobile, traffic sign, etc.) and a scene description including the classified objects 416 is provided to the planning module 404. In an embodiment, the perception module 402 includes an object detector that detects and labels objects. An example object detector is a convolutional neural network (CNN). In an embodiment, the object detector can output an image or point cloud that includes bounding boxes surrounding the detected objects, labels for the objects and bounding box scores that indicate a degree of confidence that the objects detected were correctly labeled. In an embodiment, the bounding box score can be in the range [0.0 1.0], where 0.0 indicates an incorrectly labeled object, 1.0 indicates a correctly labeled object and values in between indicate a degree of confidence that the object was correctly labeled.

The planning module 404 also receives data representing the AV position 418 from the localization module 408. The localization module 408 determines the AV position by using data from the sensors 121 and data from the database module 410 (e.g., a geographic data) to calculate a position. For example, the localization module 408 uses data from a GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) sensor and geographic data to calculate a longitude and latitude of the AV. In an embodiment, data used by the localization module 408 includes high-precision maps of the roadway geometric properties, maps describing road network connectivity properties, maps describing roadway physical properties (such as traffic speed, traffic volume, the number of vehicular and cyclist traffic lanes, lane width, lane traffic directions, or lane marker types and locations, or combinations of them), and maps describing the spatial locations of road features such as crosswalks, traffic signs or other travel signals of various types. In an embodiment, the high-precision maps are constructed by adding data through automatic or manual annotation to low-precision maps.

The control module 406 receives the data representing the trajectory 414 and the data representing the AV position 418 and operates the control functions 420 a-c (e.g., steering, throttling, braking, ignition) of the AV in a manner that will cause the AV 100 to travel the trajectory 414 to the destination 412. For example, if the trajectory 414 includes a left turn, the control module 406 will operate the control functions 420 a-c in a manner such that the steering angle of the steering function will cause the AV 100 to turn left and the throttling and braking will cause the AV 100 to pause and wait for passing pedestrians or vehicles before the turn is made.

Autonomous Vehicle Inputs

FIG. 5 shows an example of inputs 502 a-d (e.g., sensors 121 shown in FIG. 1) and outputs 504 a-d (e.g., sensor data) that is used by the perception module 402 (FIG. 4). One input 502 a is a LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) system (e.g., LiDAR 123 shown in FIG. 1). LiDAR is a technology that uses light (e.g., bursts of light such as infrared light) to obtain data about physical objects in its line of sight. A LiDAR system produces LiDAR data as output 504 a.For example, LiDAR data is collections of 3D or 2D points (also known as a point clouds) that are used to construct a representation of the environment 190.

Another input 502 b is a RADAR system. RADAR is a technology that uses radio waves to obtain data about nearby physical objects. RADARs can obtain data about objects not within the line of sight of a LiDAR system. A RADAR system 502 b produces RADAR data as output 504 b. For example, RADAR data are one or more radio frequency electromagnetic signals that are used to construct a representation of the environment 190.

Another input 502 c is a camera system. A camera system uses one or more cameras (e.g., digital cameras using a light sensor such as a charge-coupled device [CCD]) to obtain information about nearby physical objects. A camera system produces camera data as output 504 c. Camera data often takes the form of image data (e.g., data in an image data format such as RAW, JPEG, PNG, etc.). In some examples, the camera system has multiple independent cameras, e.g., for the purpose of stereopsis (stereo vision), which enables the camera system to perceive depth. Although the objects perceived by the camera system are described here as “nearby,” this is relative to the AV. In use, the camera system may be configured to “see” objects far, e.g., up to a kilometer or more ahead of the AV. Accordingly, the camera system may have features such as sensors and lenses that are optimized for perceiving objects that are far away.

Another input 502 d is a traffic light detection (TLD) system. A TLD system uses one or more cameras to obtain information about traffic lights, street signs, and other physical objects that provide visual navigation information. A TLD system produces TLD data as output 504 d. TLD data often takes the form of image data (e.g., data in an image data format such as RAW, JPEG, PNG, etc.). A TLD system differs from a system incorporating a camera in that a TLD system uses a camera with a wide field of view (e.g., using a wide-angle lens or a fish-eye lens) in order to obtain information about as many physical objects providing visual navigation information as possible, so that the AV 100 has access to all relevant navigation information provided by these objects. For example, the viewing angle of the TLD system may be about 120 degrees or more.

In some embodiments, outputs 504 a-d are combined using a sensor fusion technique. Thus, either the individual outputs 504 a-d are provided to other systems of the AV 100 (e.g., provided to a planning module 404 as shown in FIG. 4), or the combined output can be provided to the other systems, either in the form of a single combined output or multiple combined outputs of the same type (e.g., using the same combination technique or combining the same outputs or both) or different types type (e.g., using different respective combination techniques or combining different respective outputs or both). In some embodiments, an early fusion technique is used. An early fusion technique is characterized by combining outputs before one or more data processing steps are applied to the combined output. In some embodiments, a late fusion technique is used. A late fusion technique is characterized by combining outputs after one or more data processing steps are applied to the individual outputs.

FIG. 6 shows an example of a LiDAR system 602 (e.g., the input 502a shown in FIG. 5). The LiDAR system 602 emits light 604 a-c from a light emitter 606 (e.g., a laser transmitter). Light emitted by a LiDAR system is typically not in the visible spectrum; for example, infrared light is often used. Some of the light 604 b emitted encounters a physical object 608 (e.g., a vehicle) and reflects back to the LiDAR system 602. (Light emitted from a LiDAR system typically does not penetrate physical objects, e.g., physical objects in solid form.) The LiDAR system 602 also has one or more light detectors 610, which detect the reflected light. In an embodiment, one or more data processing systems associated with the LiDAR system generates an image 612 representing the field of view 614 of the LiDAR system. The image 612 includes information that represents the boundaries 616 of a physical object 608. In this way, the image 612 is used to determine the boundaries 616 of one or more physical objects near an AV.

FIG. 7 shows the LiDAR system 602 in operation. In the scenario shown in this figure, the AV 100 receives both camera system output 504 c in the form of an image 702 and LiDAR system output 504 a in the form of LiDAR data points 704. In use, the data processing systems of the AV 100 compares the image 702 to the data points 704. In particular, a physical object 706 identified in the image 702 is also identified among the data points 704. In this way, the AV 100 perceives the boundaries of the physical object based on the contour and density of the data points 704.

FIG. 8 shows the operation of the LiDAR system 602 in additional detail. As described above, the AV 100 detects the boundary of a physical object based on characteristics of the data points detected by the LiDAR system 602. As shown in FIG. 8, a flat object, such as the ground 802, will reflect light 804 a-d emitted from a LiDAR system 602 in a consistent manner. Put another way, because the LiDAR system 602 emits light using consistent spacing, the ground 802 will reflect light back to the LiDAR system 602 with the same consistent spacing. As the AV 100 travels over the ground 802, the LiDAR system 602 will continue to detect light reflected by the next valid ground point 806 if nothing is obstructing the road. However, if an object 808 obstructs the road, light 804 e-f emitted by the LiDAR system 602 will be reflected from points 810 a-b in a manner inconsistent with the expected consistent manner. From this information, the AV 100 can determine that the object 808 is present.

Path Planning

FIG. 9 shows a block diagram 900 of the relationships between inputs and outputs of a planning module 404 (e.g., as shown in FIG. 4). In general, the output of a planning module 404 is a route 902 from a start point 904 (e.g., source location or initial location), and an end point 906 (e.g., destination or final location). The route 902 is typically defined by one or more segments. For example, a segment is a distance to be traveled over at least a portion of a street, road, highway, driveway, or other physical area appropriate for automobile travel. In some examples, e.g., if the AV 100 is an off-road capable vehicle such as a four-wheel-drive (4WD) or all-wheel-drive (AWD) car, SUV, pick-up truck, or the like, the route 902 includes “off-road” segments such as unpaved paths or open fields.

In addition to the route 902, a planning module also outputs lane-level route planning data 908. The lane-level route planning data 908 is used to traverse segments of the route 902 based on conditions of the segment at a particular time. For example, if the route 902 includes a multi-lane highway, the lane-level route planning data 908 includes trajectory planning data 910 that the AV 100 can use to choose a lane among the multiple lanes, e.g., based on whether an exit is approaching, whether one or more of the lanes have other vehicles, or other factors that vary over the course of a few minutes or less. Similarly, in some implementations, the lane-level route planning data 908 includes speed constraints 912 specific to a segment of the route 902. For example, if the segment includes pedestrians or un-expected traffic, the speed constraints 912 may limit the AV 100 to a travel speed slower than an expected speed, e.g., a speed based on speed limit data for the segment.

In an embodiment, the inputs to the planning module 404 includes database data 914 (e.g., from the database module 410 shown in FIG. 4), current location data 916 (e.g., the AV position 418 shown in FIG. 4), destination data 918 (e.g., for the destination 412 shown in FIG. 4), and object data 920 (e.g., the classified objects 416 as perceived by the perception module 402 as shown in FIG. 4). In some embodiments, the database data 914 includes rules used in planning. Rules are specified using a formal language, e.g., using Boolean logic. In any given situation encountered by the AV 100, at least some of the rules will apply to the situation. A rule applies to a given situation if the rule has conditions that are met based on information available to the AV 100, e.g., information about the surrounding environment. Rules can have priority. For example, a rule that says, “if the road is a freeway, move to the leftmost lane” can have a lower priority than “if the exit is approaching within a mile, move to the rightmost lane.”

FIG. 10 shows a directed graph 1000 used in path planning, e.g., by the planning module 404 (FIG. 4). In general, a directed graph 1000 like the one shown in FIG. 10 is used to determine a path between any start point 1002 and end point 1004. In real-world terms, the distance separating the start point 1002 and end point 1004 may be relatively large (e.g., in two different metropolitan areas) or may be relatively small (e.g., two intersections abutting a city block or two lanes of a multi-lane road).

In an embodiment, the directed graph 1000 has nodes 1006 a-d representing different locations between the start point 1002 and the end point 1004 that could be occupied by an AV 100. In some examples, e.g., when the start point 1002 and end point 1004 represent different metropolitan areas, the nodes 1006 a-d represent segments of roads. In some examples, e.g., when the start point 1002 and the end point 1004 represent different locations on the same road, the nodes 1006 a-d represent different positions on that road. In this way, the directed graph 1000 includes information at varying levels of granularity. In an embodiment, a directed graph having high granularity is also a subgraph of another directed graph having a larger scale. For example, a directed graph in which the start point 1002 and the end point 1004 are far away (e.g., many miles apart) has most of its information at a low granularity and is based on stored data, but also includes some high granularity information for the portion of the graph that represents physical locations in the field of view of the AV 100.

The nodes 1006 a-d are distinct from objects 1008 a-b which cannot overlap with a node. In an embodiment, when granularity is low, the objects 1008 a-b represent regions that cannot be traversed by automobile, e.g., areas that have no streets or roads. When granularity is high, the objects 1008 a-b represent physical objects in the field of view of the AV 100, e.g., other automobiles, pedestrians, or other entities with which the AV 100 cannot share physical space. In an embodiment, some or all of the objects 1008 a-b are a static objects (e.g., an object that does not change position such as a street lamp or utility pole) or dynamic objects (e.g., an object that is capable of changing position such as a pedestrian or other car).

The nodes 1006 a-d are connected by edges 1010 a-c. If two nodes 1006 a-b are connected by an edge 1010 a, it is possible for an AV 100 to travel between one node 1006 a and the other node 1006 b, e.g., without having to travel to an intermediate node before arriving at the other node 1006 b. (When we refer to an AV 100 traveling between nodes, we mean that the AV 100 travels between the two physical positions represented by the respective nodes.) The edges 1010 a-c are often bidirectional, in the sense that an AV 100 travels from a first node to a second node, or from the second node to the first node. In an embodiment, edges 1010 a-c are unidirectional, in the sense that an AV 100 can travel from a first node to a second node, however the AV 100 cannot travel from the second node to the first node. Edges 1010 a-c are unidirectional when they represent, for example, one-way streets, individual lanes of a street, road, or highway, or other features that can only be traversed in one direction due to legal or physical constraints.

In an embodiment, the planning module 404 uses the directed graph 1000 to identify a path 1012 made up of nodes and edges between the start point 1002 and end point 1004.

An edge 1010 a-c has an associated cost 1014 a-b. The cost 1014 a-b is a value that represents the resources that will be expended if the AV 100 chooses that edge. A typical resource is time. For example, if one edge 1010 a represents a physical distance that is twice that as another edge 1010 b, then the associated cost 1014 a of the first edge 1010 a may be twice the associated cost 1014 b of the second edge 1010 b. Other factors that affect time include expected traffic, number of intersections, speed limit, etc. Another typical resource is fuel economy. Two edges 1010 a-b may represent the same physical distance, but one edge 1010 a may require more fuel than another edge 1010 b, e.g., because of road conditions, expected weather, etc.

When the planning module 404 identifies a path 1012 between the start point 1002 and end point 1004, the planning module 404 typically chooses a path optimized for cost, e.g., the path that has the least total cost when the individual costs of the edges are added together.

Autonomous Vehicle Control

FIG. 11 shows a block diagram 1100 of the inputs and outputs of a control module 406 (e.g., as shown in FIG. 4). A control module operates in accordance with a controller 1102 which includes, for example, one or more processors (e.g., one or more computer processors such as microprocessors or microcontrollers or both) similar to processor 304, short-term and/or long-term data storage (e.g., memory random-access memory or flash memory or both) similar to main memory 306, ROM 1308, and storage device 210, and instructions stored in memory that carry out operations of the controller 1102 when the instructions are executed (e.g., by the one or more processors).

In an embodiment, the controller 1102 receives data representing a desired output 1104. The desired output 1104 typically includes a velocity, e.g., a speed and a heading. The desired output 1104 can be based on, for example, data received from a planning module 404 (e.g., as shown in FIG. 4). In accordance with the desired output 1104, the controller 1102 produces data usable as a throttle input 1106 and a steering input 1108. The throttle input 1106 represents the magnitude in which to engage the throttle (e.g., acceleration control) of an AV 100, e.g., by engaging the steering pedal, or engaging another throttle control, to achieve the desired output 1104. In some examples, the throttle input 1106 also includes data usable to engage the brake (e.g., deceleration control) of the AV 100. The steering input 1108 represents a steering angle, e.g., the angle at which the steering control (e.g., steering wheel, steering angle actuator, or other functionality for controlling steering angle) of the AV should be positioned to achieve the desired output 1104.

In an embodiment, the controller 1102 receives feedback that is used in adjusting the inputs provided to the throttle and steering. For example, if the AV 100 encounters a disturbance 1110, such as a hill, the measured speed 1112 of the AV 100 is lowered below the desired output speed. In an embodiment, any measured output 1114 is provided to the controller 1102 so that the necessary adjustments are performed, e.g., based on the differential 1113 between the measured speed and desired output. The measured output 1114 includes measured position 1116, measured velocity 1118, (including speed and heading), measured acceleration 1120, and other outputs measurable by sensors of the AV 100.

In an embodiment, information about the disturbance 1110 is detected in advance, e.g., by a sensor such as a camera or LiDAR sensor, and provided to a predictive feedback module 1122. The predictive feedback module 1122 then provides information to the controller 1102 that the controller 1102 can use to adjust accordingly. For example, if the sensors of the AV 100 detect (“see”) a hill, this information can be used by the controller 1102 to prepare to engage the throttle at the appropriate time to avoid significant deceleration.

FIG. 12 shows a block diagram 1200 of the inputs, outputs, and components of the controller 1102. The controller 1102 has a speed profiler 1202 which affects the operation of a throttle/brake controller 1204. For example, the speed profiler 1202 instructs the throttle/brake controller 1204 to engage acceleration or engage deceleration using the throttle/brake 1206 depending on, e.g., feedback received by the controller 1102 and processed by the speed profiler 1202.

The controller 1102 also has a lateral tracking controller 1208 which affects the operation of a steering controller 1210. For example, the lateral tracking controller 1208 instructs the steering controller 1210 to adjust the position of the steering angle actuator 1212 depending on, e.g., feedback received by the controller 1102 and processed by the lateral tracking controller 1208.

The controller 1102 receives several inputs used to determine how to control the throttle/brake 1206 and steering angle actuator 1212. A planning module 404 provides information used by the controller 1102, for example, to choose a heading when the AV 100 begins operation and to determine which road segment to traverse when the AV 100 reaches an intersection. A localization module 408 provides information to the controller 1102 describing the current location of the AV 100, for example, so that the controller 1102 can determine if the AV 100 is at a location expected based on the manner in which the throttle/brake 1206 and steering angle actuator 1212 are being controlled. In an embodiment, the controller 1102 receives information from other inputs 1214, e.g., information received from databases, computer networks, etc.

Active Learning System

FIG. 13 shows an example data sample 1300 that is output by a perception module 402 that includes 10 bounding boxes 1301 a-1301 k with corresponding bounding box labels and scores. In the example shown the data sample is an image captured by a video camera. The bounding box labels identify the object and the bounding box scores indicate a level of confidence that its corresponding bounding box includes a correctly labeled object. In any giving data sample, there can be bounding boxes that include an object, bounding boxes that do not include an object and bounding boxes that may include an object. In the data sample 1300, the bounding box scores range from 0.00-1.00, where 0.00 means no object detected, 1.00 means an object was detected and correctly labeled and the numbers in between represent a degree of confidence that an object was detected and correctly labeled. For example, bounding box 1301 c contains a car and has a bounding box score of 1.00, indicating that the car was detected and correctly labeled as a “car.” Likewise, bounding box 1301 d includes a pedestrian and has a bounding box score of 0.96, indicating a high confidence that the pedestrian was correctly labeled a “person.” Bounding box 1301 k contains no object and thus has a bounding box score of 0.00. Note that in practice each bounding box has a bounding box score for each class. However, after various filtering steps only bounding boxes with high scores (higher than a specified threshold) are included in the output of the perception module.

Thousands of data samples with bounding boxes and bounding box scores can be collected from perception modules in AVs and stored in a database. To reduce the expense and time for manual labeling, an active learning system is used to automatically query a human annotator on which unlabeled bounding boxes are to be labeled, or incorrectly labeled bounding boxes are to be re-labeled, as described below in reference to FIG. 14. In an embodiment, the active learning system is implemented in a perception module 402 of an AV 100, and the selected data samples are provided by the AV 100 computer system 300 to the human annotator through a wireless transmission or other transfer mechanism (e.g., thumb drive). In other embodiments, the AV 100 provides the collected data samples to the human annotator, and an active learning application installed on a computer system remote from the AV 100 is used to automatically select data samples to annotate.

Since there is too much sensor data to store in a practical system, the active learning system disclosed herein helps reduce the amount of data samples stored in the database by identifying erroneous annotations in the database, and to find a balance between quantity and quality of data samples in the database to optimize system performance and cost. Moreover, the effects of different kinds of annotation errors (e.g., missing objects, inaccurate position) on performance can be analyzed, as well as training the same neural network with different amounts of data.

FIG. 14 shows a block diagram of an active learning system 1400 for automatically selecting a subset of data samples 1401 for annotation. In the example shown, active learning system 1400 includes data samples 1401, bounding box prediction module 1402, spatial probability density module 1403, ensemble score variance module 1404, selected data samples 1405 and annotator 1406.

There are scenarios in which unlabeled or incorrectly labeled data is abundant but manual labeling by a human is expensive. In such scenarios, the active learning system 1400 automatically queries the annotator 1406 for labels. Data samples 1401 (e.g., images, point clouds) include bounding boxes with known labels and bounding boxes with unknown labels. The labeled bounding boxes can be correctly labeled or incorrectly labeled. The active learning system 1400 automatically selects a subset of bounding boxes with unknown and/or incorrect labels for manual labeling (annotating) by the annotator 1406.

More particularly, in a first step the bounding box prediction module 1402 retrieves a set of labeled bounding boxes and their corresponding bounding box scores from the input data samples 1401. The bounding box prediction module 1402 then generates a probability distribution of bounding box scores over the set of labeled bounding boxes. In an embodiment, the probability distribution is approximated by a stacked histogram, as shown in FIG. 15.

FIG. 15 shows a stacked histogram of bounding box scores. For each label, a stacked histogram is generated based on a number of correctly and incorrectly labeled bounding boxes in the set of labeled bounding boxes. In this example, the stacked histogram is for a “pedestrian” label. The x-axis includes the bins of the histogram that represent ranges of bounding box scores (0.0-1.0). The y-axis is the number of bounding boxes in each bin. Each bin has a number 1501 of incorrectly labeled bounding boxes and a number 1502 of correctly labeled bounding boxes. These numbers depend on an optimal confidence threshold 1503 and a ground-truth label. The optimal confidence threshold 1503 weighs a relationship between false positives (too many detections) and false negatives (too many missing detections). For example, bounding boxes with scores that fall to the left of the optimal confidence threshold 1503 are deemed to have incorrect labels, and bounding boxes with scores that fall to the right of the optimal confidence threshold 1503 are deemed to have correct labels.

The likelihood 1504 that a given bounding box score is incorrectly classified is determined by the ratio of the number of incorrectly labeled bounding boxes 1501 and the sum of the number of incorrectly labeled bounding boxes 1501 and the number of correctly labeled bounding boxes 1502. As can be observed from FIG. 15, there is a peak 1505 in likelihood 1504 at close to the optimal confidence threshold 1503 of the pedestrian label. When selecting unlabeled bounding boxes for annotation, the active learning system 1400 will select bounding boxes having bounding box scores around the peak 1505.

Referring back to FIG. 14, the next step performed by the active learning system 1400 is to compute a spatial probability density over a set of bounding boxes for each label, sensor and scale. Since most of the data samples are collected from an AV while driving level, and because the sensors (e.g., camera, LiDAR, RADAR) are usually fixed in position, the spatial probability density can be used to identify outlier bounding boxes that would not be suitable for annotation.

In an embodiment, for each label, sensor (e.g., a camera) and scale, a Gaussian Mixture Model (GMM) is applied to the set of bounding boxes. The GMM is parameterized by bounding box size (width, height) and the bounding box position (x, y) in the sample reference frame, where x, y can be the position coordinates of the upper left-hand corner of the bounding box in the sample reference frame (e.g., image reference frame). To treat the spatial densities as probabilities, the spatial densities are normalized to be in a range of [0, 1] by dividing the spatial densities by the largest spatial density value encountered in the set of bounding boxes. In an embodiment, a minimum value for the largest spatial density value can be enforced (e.g., 1e-4) to avoid divide by zero errors resulting from the normalizing.

Referring again to FIG. 16, the plot shows the spatial probability density of the GMM for the “bike without rider” label and camera BO for a bounding box scale of medium size (e.g., a box factor of 1.0). In this example, the camera BO faces backwards which is why the spatial probability density is symmetric along the vertical axis. If the camera faced to side of the AV 100, the spatial probability density may not be symmetrical.

The spatial probability density shows where a bike without a rider would likely be found in the image. The plot can be viewed as a probability distribution of bikes without riders over the image space. It can be observed from the plot that most of the densities are clustered in a middle band 1600 and that there are likelihood peaks that extend into the lower left and rights side of the plot. When selecting bounding boxes for annotation, the active learning system 1400 will select bounding boxes in the middle band 1600. Bounding boxes in the upper portion of the plot and in the lower portion of the plot are likely to be outliers. For example, since the upper portion represents the sky in the image (assuming AV is level), it would be unlikely to detect a bike in the sky. Accordingly, bounding boxes that lie outside the middle band 1600 are be excluded for annotation.

Referring again to FIG. 14, the next step performed by the active learning system 1400 is for the ensemble score variance module 1404 to compute an ensemble score variance. As shown in FIG. 17, N machine learning (ML) models 1701 a-1701 n (e.g., 3 neural networks) are trained with training data (e.g., training images). In an embodiment, a single base neural network is trained, N copies of the base neural network are created and each copy is fine-tuned using a different random order of the training data. The “ensemble” of machine learning models (e.g., CNNs) generates N sets of predictions which are fed into a pairwise comparator module 1702. The pairwise comparator module 1702 computes the pairwise agreement between the N sets of predictions to generate N ensemble scores (e.g., set of N mean average precision (mAP) values), where each set of predictions, in turn, is the “ground truth” for the other sets of predictions on a box level. Ensemble score variance generator 1703 then computes an ensemble score variance which is a measure of the difference between the N ensemble scores. When selecting data samples (e.g., images) for annotation, the active learning system 1400 selects data samples having the highest ensemble score variance (highest uncertainty). In an alternative embodiment, cross-modal ensembles are used where a measure of agreement is made between object detections output by multiple different sensors (e.g., RADAR, LiDAR and camera).

In an embodiment, temporal inconsistency cues are used to determine if successive frames of data samples (e.g., successive video frames) contain temporal noise (e.g., “flicker”). For example, an object may disappear and then reappear in successive video frames. Object tracking algorithms (e.g., contour tracking, kernel-based tracking, CNN-based approaches) can be used to track the objects across frames to detect “flicker.” The data samples that cause flicker are selected for annotation.

In an embodiment, digital maps are used to determine if objects are violating map constraints. For example, a car that is detected inside a building violates a map constraint.

Bounding boxes that violate map constraints are excluded from selection for annotation. The map constraints do not need to be hard constraints. In an embodiment, the likelihood that a pedestrian is on a road, sidewalk, etc., is statistically modeled.

FIG. 18 shows a flow diagram of an active learning process for automatically selecting data samples for annotation. Process 1800 can be implemented by the active learning system shown in FIG. 14 using, for example, the AV computer system 300 shown in FIG. 3.

Process 1800 begins by obtaining data samples that include bounding boxes and corresponding bounding box scores (1801). For example, data samples can be generated by an object detector in a perception module of an AV, as described in reference to FIGS. 4 and 5. The object detector can be a neural network (e.g., a CNN). The object detector can take as input images and/or point clouds captured by a camera and LiDAR/RADAR, respectively. The object detector outputs the image or point cloud with bounding boxes surrounding the detected objects, labels labeling the objects and bounding box scores indicating the confidence of the object detector that the bounding boxes were labeled correctly.

Process 1800 continues by generating a distribution of bounding box scores (1802). For example, the process 1800 is capable of identifying bounding boxes having bounding box scores on the left of the optimal confidence threshold 1503 (FIG. 15) as being labeled incorrectly and bounding boxes having bounding box scores on the right side of the optimal confidence threshold 1503 as being labeled correctly. A stacked histogram can then be created to approximate the distribution using the number of incorrectly and correctly labeled bounding boxes, as described in reference to FIG. 15. A likelihood is computed for each bin of the stacked histogram and used to select bounding boxes for annotation.

Process 1800 continues by generating a spatial probability density across a set of bounding boxes for each label, sensor and scale based on box size and position (1803). For example, a GMM parameterized by box size and position in an image sample can be used to generate the spatial probability density for the set of bounding boxes. The spatial probability density is used to determine outlier bounding boxes to select for annotation, as described in reference to FIG. 16.

Process 1800 continues by generating an ensemble score variance from sets of predictions output from multiple machine learning models (1804). For example, N machine learning (ML) models (e.g., 3 CNNs) are trained with training data (e.g., training images). The “ensemble” of machine learning models generates N sets of predictions which are fed into a pairwise comparator module. The pairwise comparator module computes the pairwise agreement between the N sets of predictions to generate N ensemble scores (e.g., set of N mAP values), where each set of predictions, in turn, is the “ground truth” for the other sets of predictions on a box level. An ensemble score variance generator then computes an ensemble score variance which is a measure of the difference between the N ensemble scores. When selecting bounding boxes for annotation, the active learning system will select data samples with the highest variance. In an alternative embodiment, cross-modal ensembles are used where a measure of agreement is made between object detections output by multiple different sensors (e.g., RADAR, LiDAR and camera).

Process 1800 continues by using particular combinations of bounding box score distribution, spatial probability density and ensemble score variance to select data samples for annotation (1805). In an embodiment, the ensemble score variance and the distribution of bounding box scores are used to select data samples for annotation without using the spatial probability density. In an embodiment, the ensemble score variance and spatial probability density are used to select data samples for annotation without using the distribution of bounding box scores. In an embodiment, the distribution of bounding box scores and the spatial probability density are used to select data samples for annotation without using the ensemble score variance.

In the foregoing description, embodiments of the invention have been described with reference to numerous specific details that may vary from implementation to implementation. The description and drawings are, accordingly, to be regarded in an illustrative rather than a restrictive sense. The sole and exclusive indicator of the scope of the invention, and what is intended by the applicants to be the scope of the invention, is the literal and equivalent scope of the set of claims that issue from this application, in the specific form in which such claims issue, including any subsequent correction. Any definitions expressly set forth herein for terms contained in such claims shall govern the meaning of such terms as used in the claims. In addition, when we use the term “further comprising,” in the foregoing description or following claims, what follows this phrase can be an additional step or entity, or a sub-step/sub-entity of a previously-recited step or entity. 

1. A method comprising: obtaining, using one or more processors, a set of data samples, each data sample including one or more bounding boxes, each bounding box containing a potential object or scene in an environment, each bounding box having a label and bounding box score indicating a confidence in the label being correct; and selecting, using the one or more processors, a subset of data samples for annotation based on a bounding box prediction confidence determined using a probability distribution of bounding box scores, and an ensemble score variance based on differences in ensemble scores computed from sets of predictions output by multiple machine learning models.
 2. The method of claim 2, further comprising: selecting, using the one or more processors, the subset of data samples for annotation based on the bounding box prediction confidence, a spatial probability density of the bounding boxes parameterized by bounding box size and position and the ensemble score variance.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the bounding box prediction further comprises: for each label: generating a probability distribution of bounding box scores; and determining, based on the distribution, a likelihood that a particular bounding box is incorrectly labeled; and selecting or excluding the particular bounding box for annotation based on the likelihood.
 4. The method of claim 3, wherein the distribution is approximated by a histogram having bins representing ranges of bounding box scores, and each bin is associated with a likelihood.
 5. The method claim 4, wherein for each bin the likelihood is calculated from a ratio of a number of incorrectly labeled bounding boxes assigned to the bin and a sum of the number of incorrectly labeled bounding boxes and a number of labeled bounding boxes assigned to the bin.
 6. The method of claim 2, further comprising: for each label, sensor and scale: determining the spatial probability density using a Gaussian Mixture Model (GMM) over a set of bounding boxes for the label, sensor and scale, where the GMM is parameterized by bounding box size and position.
 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the spatial probability density for the label is determined by dividing the spatial densities for the label by a largest density value among all spatial density values for the label.
 8. The method of claim 1, further comprising: processing the data samples through a plurality of different machine learning models to generate predicted labeled bounding boxes; computing an ensemble score for each pairwise comparison of the predicted labeled bounding boxes, where each predicted labeled bounding box is a ground truth for comparison with the other predicted labeled bounding boxes; and computing an ensemble score variance based on the ensemble scores.
 9. The method of claim 8, wherein the plurality of different machine learning models includes a plurality of different neural networks tuned by training data samples provided by different types of sensors.
 10. The method of claim 9, wherein the different types of sensors include LiDAR, RADAR and a camera.
 11. The method of claim 9, wherein the plurality of different neural networks are trained on different random orders of the training data samples.
 12. The method of claim 1, further comprising: detecting, by the one or more processors, temporal inconsistency between successive data samples; in accordance with temporal inconsistency being detected, selecting at least one of the successive data samples for annotation.
 13. The method of claim 1, further comprising: using, by the one or more processors, map constraints to detect an error associated with a bounding box; and in accordance with the error being detected, excluding the bounding box from annotation.
 14. An active learning system, comprising: a storage device including data samples; one or more processors; memory storing instructions that when executed by the one or more processors, cause the one or more processors to perform operations comprising: obtaining a set of data samples, each data sample including one or more bounding boxes, each bounding box containing a potential object or scene in an environment, each bounding box having a label and bounding box score indicating a confidence in the label being correct; and selecting a subset of data samples for annotation based on a bounding box prediction confidence determined using a probability distribution of bounding box scores, and an ensemble score variance based on differences in ensemble scores computed from sets of predictions output by multiple machine learning models.
 15. The system of claim 14, further comprising: selecting the subset of data samples for annotation based on the bounding box prediction confidence, a spatial probability density of the bounding boxes parameterized by bounding box size and position and the ensemble score variance.
 16. The system of claim 14, wherein the bounding box prediction further comprises: for each label: generating a probability distribution of bounding box scores; and determining, based on the distribution, a likelihood that a particular bounding box is incorrectly labeled; and selecting or excluding the particular bounding box for annotation based on the likelihood.
 17. The system of claim 16, wherein the distribution is approximated by a histogram having bins representing ranges of bounding box scores, and each bin is associated with a likelihood.
 18. The system claim 17, wherein for each bin the likelihood is calculated from a ratio of a number of incorrectly labeled bounding boxes assigned to the bin and a sum of the number of incorrectly labeled bounding boxes and a number of labeled bounding boxes assigned to the bin.
 19. The system of claim 15, further comprising: for each label, sensor and scale: determining the spatial probability density using a Gaussian Mixture Model (GMM) over a set of bounding boxes for the label, sensor and scale, where the GMM is parameterized by bounding box size and position.
 20. The system of claim 19, wherein the spatial probability density for the label is determined by dividing the spatial densities for the label by a largest density value among all spatial density values for the label.
 21. The system of claim 14, further comprising: processing the data samples through a plurality of different machine learning models to generate predicted labeled bounding boxes; computing an ensemble score for each pairwise comparison of the predicted labeled bounding boxes, where each predicted labeled bounding box is a ground truth for comparison with the other predicted labeled bounding boxes; and computing an ensemble score variance based on the ensemble scores.
 22. The system of claim 21, wherein the plurality of different machine learning models includes a plurality of different neural networks tuned by training data samples provided by different types of sensors.
 23. The system of claim 22, wherein the different types of sensors include LiDAR, RADAR and a camera.
 24. The system of claim 22, wherein the plurality of different neural networks are trained on different random orders of the training data samples.
 25. The system of claim 14, further comprising: detecting temporal inconsistency between successive data samples; in accordance with temporal inconsistency being detected, selecting at least one of the successive data samples for annotation.
 26. The system of claim 14, further comprising: using map constraints to detect an error associated with a bounding box; and in accordance with the error being detected, excluding the bounding box from annotation. 